Biblical Foundations for Womanhood
Table
of Contents
Acknowledgments.................11
Foreword..............................13
Introduction..........................15
The
true woman versus the new woman
1
Her Time................................19
2 Her Standard..........................37
Her
identity
3
A Recipient of Redemption.....59
4 A Reflection of
Redemption.....79
5
A Cultivator of Community......97
6 A Channel of
Compassion.......121
Her
virtue
7
Piety.......................................141
8 Purity......................................163
9 Domesticity.............................183
10 Submission..............................201
Conclusion.............................225
About the Author...................229
Notes......................................231
This
excerpt from The True Woman by Susan Hunt, copyright 1997, is used
by permission of Crossway Books, a division of Good News Publishers, Wheaton,
IL. It is presented here strictly for preview purposes and is not to be
reproduced in any form without the express consent of the publisher.
Chapter
One
Her Time
To a certain extent, woman is the conservator of her
nation’s welfare. Her virtue, if firm and uncorrupted, will stand
sentinel over that of the empire.
Female
Piety
I
am thrilled with the plethora of books, tapes,
videos, and magazines that are helping Christians think biblically and
strategically as we live out our faith in a post-Christian culture. But as
I read, listen, and watch, I wonder if a foundational essential for
salting culture has been missed. The French philosopher Alexis de
Tocqueville discovered this secret ingredient when he traveled through the
United States in 1831. He wrote about it in his classic work Democracy
in America: “No free communities ever existed without morals, and . . .
morals are the work of woman. Consequently, whatever affects the condition
of women, their habits and their opinions, has great political importance
in my eyes.”1
The nineteenth-century preacher John Angell James was also aware of
woman’s position as the heart of culture: “The greatest influence on
earth, whether for good or for evil, is possessed by woman. Let us study
the history of by-gone ages, the state of barbarism and civilization; of
the east and the west, of Paganism and Christianity; of antiquity and the
middle ages; of the mediaeval and modern times; and we shall find that
there is nothing which more decidedly separates them than the condition of
woman.”2
I
can almost hear the groans of women. “Where are the men today who place
such high value on womanhood?” Some have chosen to land on that question
and write books filled with examples of how men have disappointed,
discouraged, distressed, degraded, and disgraced women. But that is
blame-shifting. The painful reality is that the question is not: “Where
are men like Tocqueville and James?” The question is: “Where are the
true women who are having such a magnanimous magnetism on our culture?”
The
Real Thing
But
what is meant by the term “the true woman”?
The
dictionary defines true as “consistent with fact or reality; exactly
conforming to a rule, standard, or pattern.” Some of the meanings of the
Greek words translated true, truly, and truth in the New Testament include
unconcealed, actual, true to fact, real, ideal, genuine, sincere, the
reality lying at the basis of an appearance, and the manifested veritable
essence of a matter.3
The
true woman is the real thing. She is a genuine, authentic Masterpiece. The
Master has set eternity in her heart and is conforming her to His own
image. There is consistency in her outward behavior because it is dictated
by the reality of her inner life. That reality is her redemption.
The
true woman is a reflection of her redemption.
Since
the fall of Adam, and until Christ returns, there cannot be a thoroughly
true reflection of His image. Sin brings confusion, pandemonium, and death
to the soul, and its remnants haunt us even after we are born again. But
the radical entrance of grace into the heart brings life, order, and
sanity. By the transforming power of the Gospel, the Christian woman is
empowered by God’s Spirit to give an increasingly true reflection of her
Savior and thus to be a true woman.
“True
womanhood” was the accepted and expected concept of womanhood in
mid-nineteenth-century America. Women’s books and magazines cultivated
and propagated this concept. According to Barbara Welter, “Authors who
addressed themselves to the subject of women in the mid-nineteenth century
used this phrase as frequently as writers on religion mentioned God.
Neither group felt it necessary to define their favorite terms; they
simply assumed—with some justification—that readers would intuitively
understand exactly what they meant.”4
I
first read of the true-woman concept in No
Place for Truth. In this book, David Wells, professor of historical
and systematic theology at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, writes:
Moralists
and campaigners in the nineteenth century almost invariably addressed
their pleas and admonitions to women, to the hands that rocked the
cradles. Men, it seemed, were beyond redemption unless their womenfolk
could get to them. Carousing and cavorting were accepted as an
inevitable part of being male, but it was felt that if women were in
some way to fall as well, the very fabric of society would be rent. For
this peculiar role in the world, women were not sequestered away from
wickedness, as was often the case in Europe, but . . . were
encouraged to develop the strength of mind and independence of thought
without which their innocence would soon be overcome.5
Various
attributes characterized the nineteenth-century true woman. Welter
summarizes these into “four cardinal virtues—piety, purity,
submissiveness and domesticity.”6 Provocative words to say the least!
Part of our task will be to determine if these are biblical virtues. If
they are, then we must dismantle our twentieth-century definitions of
these words and discover the biblical definitions.
Then
and Now
Imagine
living in mid-nineteenth-century culture where you would be out of sync if
you opposed this standard. Let me jump-start your imaginings by quoting
from some books and magazines of that era.
Imagine
sitting in your doctor’s office scanning your favorite magazine, The
Lady at Home, and reading: “. . . even if we cannot reform
the world in a moment, we can begin the work by reforming ourselves and
our households—It is woman’s mission. Let her not look away from her
own little family circle for the means of producing moral and social
reforms, but begin at home.”7
Imagine
sitting by the fire with a cup of tea and a new book by a favorite male
author and reading: “Every woman, whether rich or poor, married or
single, has a circle of influence, within which, according to her
character, she is exerting a certain amount of power for good or harm.
Every woman, by her virtue or her vice; by her folly or her wisdom; by her
levity or her dignity, is adding something to our national elevation or
degradation.”8
Imagine
your daughter perusing a catalog from Mt. Holyoke Female Seminary and
being “promised an education that would render women handmaidens to the
gospel and provide them with tools they could use ‘in the great task of
renovating the world.’”9
Imagine
getting a copy of the much-talked-about Democracy
in America and reading: “. . . if I were asked, now that I
am drawing to the close of this work, in which I have spoken of so many
important things done by the Americans, to what the singular prosperity
and growing strength of that people ought mainly to be attributed, I
should reply: To the superiority of their women.”10
It
sounds idyllic.
But
that is not the time in history when God placed us
on this planet. That was then; this is now.
Fast
forward from the nineteenth century to the end of the twentieth century
and imagine . . .
My
friend Ruth returning to teach high school after thirteen years as a
stay-at-home mom. “I knew intellectually about the notion of truth being
relative, but I was not prepared for the reality of the results of this
philosophy. In a discussion about cheating, I told the students they
should not cheat because it was wrong. They could not connect with what I
was saying. They looked at me incredulously and asked, ‘Why?’”
Faithful
Christian parents being told by their teenage daughter that she is
pregnant and wants to have an abortion. It is an easy way to “get rid of
the problem,” and she thinks their objections are just another ploy to
control her.
My
young friend Jennifer, along with seventeen other students in a high
school health class in a conservative suburban community, being asked if
they think it is wrong for an unmarried couple to live together. Jennifer
and five others said yes. Two-thirds saw no problem with this arrangement.
A
Re-imagining Conference billed as “A Global Conference by Women; for
Women and Men,” where conference participants reportedly explored ways
to “re-imagine” God in nontraditional ways. One speaker told the
group, “I don’t think we need a theory of atonement at all. I think
Jesus came for life and to show us something about life. . . . I
don’t think we need folks hanging on crosses and blood dripping and
weird stuff . . . “ Participants worshiped the divine in each
other by marking red dots on their foreheads to signify their divinity and
then bowing to each other in an act of reverence. They sang songs to the
goddess Sophia, the source of their divinity, the creator who dwells
within them and unleashes within them their divine power.11
A
United Nations World Conference on Women in Beijing, China, where,
according to Dr. James Dobson: “. . . the delegates from the
United States, Canada and the European Union lived up to expectations.
They focused on redesigning the family, reordering the way males and
females interrelate, promoting ‘reproductive rights for women,’
distributing condoms and safe-sex nonsense to kids, propagating
‘homosexual and lesbian rights,’ weakening parental authority,
undermining ‘patriarchal’ religious teachings and spreading feminist
ideology to every nation on earth.”12 Workshops at the conference
included “Lesbian Flirtation Techniques Workshop” and “How Religious
Fundamentalism Helps the Spread of AIDS.”
Obviously
the reasons for such a contrast between then and now are complex. But the
question must be asked: Is the loss of true womanhood a basic cause for
our current cultural poverty and confusion? It seems undeniable that it is
at least a contributor. Which forces another question: Could the
recapturing of true womanhood be a contributor to, or dare we dream, a
catalyst for reforming and reshaping culture?
The
true-woman concept is much broader than the husband-and-wife relationship.
We will see that the virtues of true womanhood are biblical virtues that
cross all cultural, situational, and generational boundaries and go to the
heart of the covenant community of faith. But first let me build a case
for the urgency for women of biblical faith to give a true reflection of
our redemption by maintaining a firm and uncorrupted virtue that “will
stand sentinel over that of the empire” at this time in history.
Our
Time
Cultural
chaos is nothing new. Since Adam and Eve plunged humanity into sin, there
have been two kingdoms warring over territorial rights. The territory is
man’s heart, and the issue is who will rule. There is no demilitarized
zone. The enemy of our souls is ruthless, deceptive, and dazzling. He
cunningly adapts to each generation and location. But in God’s
providence, this is the time in history and the place on the globe that He
has placed us. This is the time and place that we are to reflect our
redemption. So what characterizes our time?
Peggy
Noonan, former speechwriter for Ronald Reagan and George Bush, gave a
trenchant critique in Forbes magazine.
Her critique is noteworthy because of her vantage point that affords her
the opportunity to observe and participate in the broader secular culture.
In a sense, this is a view from within. Noonan writes: “The life of
people on earth is obviously much better than it was 500 years ago. . .
. But we are not happier. I believe we are just cleaner, more attractive
sad people than we used to be.”13
After
cataloging some reasons people today are discontented, Noonan declares:
It is embarrassing to live in the most comfortable time in the history
of man and not be happy. We all have so much!
. . .
I find myself thinking of Auden’s words about the average man in 1939,
as darkness gathered over Europe. . . . Auden called his era
the “age of anxiety.” I think what was at the heart of the dread in
those days, just a few years into modern times, was that we could tell
we were beginning to lose God—banishing him from the scene, from our
consciousness, losing the assumption that he was part of the daily
drama, or its maker. And it is a terrible thing when people lose God.
Life is difficult and people are afraid, and to be without God is to
lose man’s great source of consolation and coherence. . . .
I
don’t think it is unconnected to the boomers’ predicament that as a
country we were losing God just as they were being born.
At
the same time, a huge revolution in human expectation was beginning to
shape our lives, the salient feature of which is the expectation of
happiness. . . .
Somewhere
in the seventies, or the sixties, we started expecting to be happy, and
changed our lives (left town, left families, switched jobs) if we were
not. And society strained and cracked in the storm.
I
think we have lost the old knowledge that happiness is overrated—that,
in a way, life is overrated. We have lost, somehow, a sense of
mystery—about us, our purpose, our meaning, our role. Our ancestors
believed in two worlds, and understood this to be the solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish and short one. We are the first generations of man that
actually expected to find happiness here on earth, and our search for it
has caused such—unhappiness. The reason: If you do not believe in
another, higher world, if you believe only in the flat material world
around you, if you believe that this is your only chance at
happiness—if that is what you believe, then you are not disappointed
when the world does not give you a good measure of its riches—you are
despairing. 14
After
this piercing analysis of our time, Noonan concludes on a note of what
sounds to me t
o be sad resignation:
It’s
odd to accuse boomers of reticence, but I think we have been reticent,
at least in this:
When
we talk about the difficulties of our lives and how our country has
changed, we become embarrassed and feel . . . dotty. Like
someone’s old aunt rocking on the porch and talking about the good old
days. And so most of us keep quiet, raise our children as best we can,
go to the cocktail party, eat our cake, go to work and take the
vacation.
We
have removed ourselves from leadership, we professional white-collar
boomers. We have recused ourselves from a world we never made. We turn
our attention to the arts and entertainment, to watching and supporting
them or contributing to them, because they are the only places we can
imagine progress. And to money, hoping that it will keep us safe.15
The
oddity of our time is the juxtaposition of Peggy Noonan’s commentary and
the rise of evangelicalism. On the one hand there is this discontent and
reticent resignation, and on the other hand we hear staggering statistics
about the growth of evangelicalism. David Wells comments on this:
The
vast growth in evangelically minded people in the 1960s, 1970s, and
1980s should by now have revolutionized American culture. With a third
of American adults now claiming to have experienced spiritual rebirth, a
powerful countercurrent of morality growing out of a powerful and
alternative worldview should have been unleashed in factories, offices,
and boardrooms, in the media, universities, and professions, from one
end of the country to the other. The results should by now be
unmistakable. Secular values should be reeling, and those who are their
proponents should be very troubled. But as it turns out, all of this
swelling of the evangelical ranks has passed unnoticed in the culture.
It has simply been absorbed and tamed. . . . This surely is an
odd circumstance. Here is a corner of the religious world that has
learned from the social scientists how to grow itself, that is sprouting
huge megachurches that look like shopping malls for the religious, that
can count in its own society the moneyed and powerful, and yet it causes
not so much as a ripple. . . . Thus it is that both American
culture and American evangelicalism have come to share the same fate,
both basking in the same stunning, outward success while stricken by a
painful vacuity, an emptiness in their respective centers. . . .
In the one there are no moral absolutes, and in the other there is no
theology.16
Our
Opportunity
This
is our time. This is our opportunity. There is a vacuum of moral
leadership. There is decadence and despair. There is a shallowness of
theology that has produced a superficial lifestyle among Christians. But
woman is the keeper of the moral atmosphere. She sets the moral compass.
But not just any woman.
The
author of Female Piety
understood this:
Man
is neither safe in himself, nor profitable to others, when he lives
dissociated from that benign influence which is to be found in woman’s
presence and character. . . . But it is not woman, gay,
frivolous, and unbelieving, or woman separated from those divine
teachings which make all hearts wise, that can lay claim to the exercise
of such an influence. But when she adds to the traits of sympathy,
forbearance, and warm affection, which characterize her, the strength
and wisdom of a well-cultivated intellect, and the still higher
attributes of religious faith and holy love, it is not easy to limit the
good she may do in all situations, and in all periods of life.17
A
Band-Aid approach will not suffice. Our moment in history demands women
who know their time, but who are not controlled or manipulated by their
time. Our time begs for women of biblical faith who can exert a reforming
influence on culture.
In
my work as consultant for the women’s ministry of my denomination, I
spend much energy exploring the role of women in the home, church, and
world and training women to fulfill their calling. At a leadership
training conference, a woman asked an insightful and heartfelt question:
“As we pursue our desire to train women for kingdom work through the
women’s ministry of our churches, what is to keep us from spinning out
of control and going the way of so many other women’s movements? Is it
wise for us to organize and mobilize women?”
I
had considered these questions and was prepared to answer, or so I
thought. My response: “Women will organize,
and they will mobilize. If we don’t
give biblical leadership, there will be a vacuum, and someone will
fill it. A laissez-faire approach may suffice for a season, but eventually
someone will become frustrated and erupt, and others will follow.
Anger-birthed leadership is dangerous.”
Following
the meeting, the question hovered over me. I could not disentangle it from
my brain. I finally concluded that there was another part of the answer
that God wanted me to learn.
It
took a lot of soul-excavation before I went deep enough to unearth the
treasure I found. It was hard work. At times my spiritual muscles ached. I
was weary from this soul-work, and I was uncertain that I had made the
right discovery, so I went to visit Rosalie. That visit was the final push
to write this book.
Rosalie
Cassels is a fascinating woman. She is one of my heroines and one of my
spiritual mothers. In her late eighties, she is full of wisdom and grace
that has come from living a life of serving her Savior through His church.
Rosalie
was born January 1, 1907. She has been a member of Rose Hill Presbyterian
Church in Columbia, South Carolina, since she was about eight years old.
Her father began this church as a Sunday school class for poor children.
As
Rosalie became a young woman, she had a passion for training women to
serve the Lord through His church. She held many positions in the
women’s work of her denomination. Her husband was a prominent and
successful businessman, so she had the resources to travel to mission
fields encouraging missionaries.
But
of all the things Rosalie did, her eyes light up the most when she tells
about serving as Director of the Interdenominational Christian Conference
for Negro Women at Benedict College. This was a week-long summer program
to train black women for kingdom work. Rosalie’s tenure in this
volunteer position spanned the years from 1947-1967. Think about it—this
was before racial reconciliation was in vogue. A couple of years after she
began this work, her maid became ill while the family was vacationing at
their lake house. Rosalie drove her into town to see the doctor. On the
way, the maid needed to use the restroom. Rosalie made several stops, but
there was no place that would allow a black woman to use their facilities.
By the time they reached Columbia, Rosalie had a new mission. Though her
cause was unpopular in her community at that time, she worked tirelessly
to improve the circumstances of blacks.
I
have sat spellbound as Rosalie told me incredible stories, usually not
even aware that the stories were extraordinary. This particular afternoon
she told me that during the time she worked in interracial ministries, she
would often go into churches or restaurants, and she could see and hear
people whispering. “I could feel their disapproval,” she said. “But
it didn’t matter. I was doing what God told me to do.”
Then
I asked about the Bible class she taught in her church for forty years.
She was more interested in telling me about Bennie, one of her
housekeepers who is teaching a Sunday school class in her church. And
then, with delight dancing in her eyes, Rosalie told me that every
Saturday she and Bennie sit on the couch with Rosalie’s books spread
around them. Rosalie is teaching Bennie how to use Bible study helps and
how to plan a lesson.
This
true woman is like the Energizer Bunny—she keeps going and going. She
seizes whatever opportunity God gives her. Rosalie’s physical heart may
be weaker, but her heart for the Lord and for His church is stronger
because her character is shaped and driven by God’s Spirit and His Word.
Sitting
in her presence, I knew I had made the right discovery regarding the
potential danger of equipping and mobilizing women for kingdom service.
Any
group is in danger of spinning out of control unless each individual
woman’s redeemed character is shaped and driven by God’s Spirit and
His Word.
Placing
a high premium on each woman’s character is mandatory for a group of
women to stay on course. Godly leadership keeps this foundational
principle at the center. It is godly character that will persevere and
finish well regardless of the opposition or obstacles.
My
discovery seems obvious. It is not a complicated truth, but it is a core
truth. Perhaps its simplicity causes us to take it for granted. We assume
everyone knows it. And then it slips to the background, and soon everyone
has forgotten it.
We
must train women to serve the King of the church through His church
because of who He is—the King of glory; and we must continually remind
them who they are—His redeemed daughters.
A
Close Encounter
We
will explore the standard, the identity, and the virtues of the true woman
in later chapters. But let me set the stage by presenting a breathtaking
scene from Scripture that I want to hold before you as we begin our quest
into what it means to be a true woman.
The
Lord God spoke to our spiritual father Abraham and made an extraordinary
promise: “I will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant
between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to
come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you” (Genesis
17:7).
“Your
descendants” includes me! All believers are spiritual descendants of
Abraham, so the God of glory is my God.
And
it keeps getting better. “I will put my dwelling place among you, and I
will not abhor you. I will walk among you and be your God, and you will be
my people” (Leviticus 26:11-12).
He
will not be an absentee father. He will live among us. We will be His
people and live in His presence.
Keep
this promise in mind as we look at the scene at Mt. Sinai. Try to form a
mental picture of this amazing episode. The thunder and lightning, the
thick cloud over the mountain, the loud trumpet blast, smoke billowing up
as though from a furnace, the mountain trembling violently, the trumpet
getting louder and louder—this goes beyond awesome (Exodus 19:16-19).
But while Moses is on the mountain receiving God’s law, the people make
and worship a golden calf. In response to this flagrant disobedience, God
strikes the people with a plague and says to Moses, “. . . Go
up to the land flowing with milk and honey. But I will not go with you,
because you are a stiff-necked people and I might destroy you on the
way” (Exodus 33:3).
The
plague was one thing, but when God said, “I will not go with you,”
Moses panicked. God was threatening to withdraw His presence, and that was
the one thing Moses knew they could not do without. Moses could not deny
that the people were rebellious; he could only plead God’s covenant
faithfulness to be their God and to live among them. So he cried,
“Remember that this nation is your people” (Exodus 33:13).
“The
Lord replied, ‘My Presence will go with you, and I will give you
rest.’
“Then
Moses said to him, ‘If your Presence does not go with us, do not send us
up from here. How will anyone know that you are pleased with me and with
your people unless you go with us? What else will distinguish me and your
people from all the other people on the face of the earth?’” (Exodus
33:14-16).
Then
Moses made the ultimate request: “Show me your glory.” And God did.
Moses
spent forty days on the mountain with the Lord. Following this incredible
encounter, when he returned to the people with the tablets of the Law in
his hands, “he was not aware that his face was radiant because he had
spoken with the Lord” (Exodus 34:29).
Moses’
world was as cluttered with unbelief, rebellion, and moral collapse as our
world today. But he knew that all that mattered was: “If your Presence
does not go with us, do not send us up from here.”
Moses
knew that the only thing that would distinguish them from everyone else on
the face of the earth was God dwelling among them.
And
when Moses spent time in the glorious presence of God, he radiated that
glory. Such a close encounter with glory could not be repressed; it could
only be reflected.
In
Summary
When
my friend Sharon Kraemer was diagnosed with cancer, her response was, “I
am confident that God will use this to take me deeper into His love for
me.” I didn’t see Sharon until several weeks after surgery and several
rounds of chemotherapy, and at my first sight of her I gasped. It was not
because her body and her hair were so thin. My shock was because Sharon
absolutely glowed with peace and love. She was awash with an undeniable
radiance. I could only exclaim, “Sharon, you must have been spending
some incredible times with the Lord.” She did not need to reply. The
evidence was there.
This
is the essence of the true woman. Regardless of the time in history when
she inhabits this earth, she is one who lives in the presence of glory.
Her redeemed character is shaped and driven by God’s Word and Spirit.
Because she is the very dwelling place of the Lord God, her reflection of
Him is manifested in every relationship and circumstance of life. The
distinguishing characteristic of her life is His presence in her radiating
out to all who see her. The true woman’s life is not segmented into
sacred and secular. All of life is sacred because it is lived in His
presence. The true woman is a true reflection of God’s glory.
Personal
Reflection
1. I
must begin by asking you to “examine yourself to see whether you are in
the faith” (2 Corinthians 13:5). Are you trusting in Christ alone for
your salvation? Have you repented of your sin and put your faith in His
life of perfect obedience and His atoning sacrifice on the cross? He is
the source of truth, for He is truth, and it is only as you are in
relationship with Him that you can reflect Him. Write a statement of your
faith in your journal.
2. Are
you a participating member of a worshiping community? Have you placed
yourself under the authority of a local church?
3. Read
Acts 17:26-28 and reflect on the truth that God sovereignly determined the
time in history when, and the place on the planet where, you would live.
Meditate on the fact that in Him you “live and move and have your
being.” Record your thoughts in your journal.
4. Read
and meditate on Exodus 33 and 34. Ask God to show you His glory. Record
your thoughts.
5. Read
1 Corinthians 3:16 and praise God that He is not an absentee father. His
dwelling place is among you—indeed He dwells in you. Again record your
thoughts about this glorious truth.
Footnotes:
1. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. 2 (New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1945; Vintage books, a division of Random House, 1990),
198.
2.John Angell James, Female Piety (London: Hamilton Adams and
Company, 1860; reprint, Pittsburgh: Soli Deo Gloria Publications--P. O. Box
451, Morgan, Penn., 15604, FAX 412/221-1902--1994), 72.
3. W. E. Vine, An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, vol.
4 (Old Tappan, N.J.: Fleming H. Revell, 1966), 158.
4. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860,"
American Quarterly, 18 (Summer 1966), 151.
5. David F. Wells, No Place for Truth (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993),
26-27.
6. Welter, "Cult of True Womanhood," 152.
7. Ibid., 174
8. James, Female Piety, 72
9. Welter, "Cult of True Womanhood," 153.
10. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 214.
11. The Presbyterian Layman, 27, no. 1, (January/February 1994).
12. Focus on the Family Newsletter, Colorado Springs, Colo., October
1995.
13. Peggy Noonan, "You'd Cry Too if it Happened to You," Forbess,
September 14, 992, 60, 64, 65, 69.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Wells, No Place for Truth, 293-94.
17. James, Female Piety, 73.
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